1.
Introduction
Taking up the burden and
responsibility of becoming a leader is never an easy task. Only the most
qualified persons are chosen to bear the responsibility of leadership. One
would deduce that gender would have no bearing whatsoever when it concerns
leadership. However, these two subject matters are never separate. The issue of
gender would somehow be mentioned in the debate and discussion of leadership.
This essay aims to discuss the issue
of gender and leadership based on references from several sources. This essay
may not be able to provide a thorough study, analysis or comprehensive
discussion on the subject matter. This paper aims only to shed light to the
subject matter and to provide a general glimpse of the issue at hand.
By studying and discussing factors
that are important towards leadership and stem from gender, we can see how
gender and leadership are intrinsically linked to each other, and we can see
whether gender affects and carries any weight toward leadership.
First and foremost, we should discuss
the definition of “leadership”, before we delve into “gender” and how it
affects leadership. According to the Oxford Lexico Dictionary, “leadership” is
defined as “the action of leading a group of people or an organization”; “The
state or position of being a leader.”; or “the leaders of an organization,
country, etc”[1].
from this definition, we can surmise that gender would have no bearing on how
leaders are chosen and that gender would have no effect whatsoever on
leadership. Somehow, that does not seem to be the case.
Next, it is necessary for us to
understand the definition of “gender”. This is so because, not many are aware
that “gender” and “sex” are two different aspects. Some are of the
understanding that these two words bring about the same meaning, when it is not
the case. “gender” and “sex” are two very different subject matter, and when we
have finally understand its definition, we will be able to understand the
context of the discussion concerning gender and leadership. “Gender” is defined
as “either of the two sexes (male and female), especially when considered with
reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones. The
term is also used more broadly to denote a range of identities that do not
correspond to established ideas of male and female”[2].
Whereas “sex” is defined as “either of the two main categories (male and
female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis
of their reproductive functions”. It is important to note that “sex” is
concerned with physical and biological features and function, while “gender” is
concerned with identities and attributes.
By understanding these definitions,
we can now proceed to the further discussion on gender and leadership. This
essay will proceed to highlight some important factors that must be taken into
consideration when discussing gender and leadership. These factors may be
helpful in determining how a group, institution or organization should choose
leaders and the leadership style best suited in respective circumstances.
2.
Does
gender affect leadership? – Gender stereotypes, sex typing, gender roles, etc.
As mentioned previously, “gender” is
concerned with identities and attributes. Erklund, et al (2017) noted that
gender is denoted by the different roles, responsibilities, limitations, and
experiences that is associated with each different gender. The simplest way to
differentiate gender is based on the classification whether a person is male or
female. However, gender goes beyond physical identification. Gender is complex
and multidimensional. Gender is defined and shaped by psychological
characteristics such as personality, identity, traits, stereotypes, attitudes
and values. Hence, the phrase “gender stereotypes”. Each gender is associated
with a general common trait, attribute, or value that helps people to
differentiate one gender form another and helps to associate people with
gender.
Within society, sex typing and gender
stereotypes have greatly influenced how human view each other. Gender
stereotypes and sex typing are often utilized when human recognize or take note
of the features of other human, especially as a first impression. For example,
females are often described with words such as “pretty”, “sweet”, “gentle”,
etc. Whereas males are often characterized with words such as “strong”,
“powerful;”, “tall”, etc. These adjectives which have been commonly associated
with a specific gender has helped fuel gender stereotypes until today, and have
led to a certain extent a sense of biasness and prejudice in leadership, and
how people evaluate and decide when choosing leaders for their respective
group/organization/institution. On the other hand, sex typing has greatly
influenced how a person is shaped and has greatly influenced media, cultural
and societal perceptions on gender, and has provided a benchmark on how each
gender is defined based on societal perceptions and standards. (Erklund, 2017)
(Bem,1981).
As time changes and evolves, the
perception of society on gender stereotypes and sex typing has evolved as well.
Societal norms have undergone significant development throughout time and they
manner in which society members interact with each other has changed, parallel
to societal norms (Erklund, 2017). Many studies and researches have been done
on the topic of gender and leadership. Some research have shown that gender
stereotypes do bear a certain amount of weight on leadership styles and
perceptions towards leadership, while other research has shown that despite
differences in leadership styles between male and female, there are no
conclusive evidence on whose style of leadership is most effective for
leadership and management (Appelbaum, et al, 2003).
3.
Male
vs Female? – How to evaluate leadership?
The concept of leadership has been
influenced by many factors. Erklund, et al (2017) noted that leadership was
usually evaluated or associated with “who”, but now whenever leadership is
discussed or mentioned, it is usually associated with “what” – concerned more
with factors that make up a leader, instead of asking who would be a good
leader. Radu, et al (2017) noted that many parties have vested interests in a
particular group, organization or institution when it concerns the issue of
choosing leaders. Hence, it is important to set a benchmark or find the correct
answers when the question of “what makes a good leader?” comes into play. Radu,
et al (2017) believed that it is important to focus on aspects concerning a
leader’s “activities, their competencies, style behavior, and personality, as
many of the already conducted research offer valuable results, whether they are
congruent or complementary”[3].
According to Radu, et al (2017), a leader should possess the willingness to
lead; a sense of commitment towards the group or organization he/she will lead;
and have integrity towards the responsibility he/she will bear as a leader.
Together with the general perceptions
that society believes a leader should possess, leadership is also analyzed
based on the values and attributes often used to characterized gender (Radu, et
al, 2017). Callahan and Grunberg (2016) noted four key elements of leadership
that are applicable to four psychological levels in leadership (personal,
interpersonal, team, organization). They analyzed leadership based on the
FourCe-PITO framework and found that the four key elements- Character,
Competence, Context, and Communication (the four Cs), provide a set of standard
that can be utilized in evaluating leadership (Callahan & Grunberg, 2016 as
cited in Eklund, 2017). The first C is “Character”. Character is concerned with
individual aspects that make up a person, such as personality, values, physical
features, etc. Character are generally neutral and transcend gender, but it is
worth noting that gender traits do to a certain extent influence leadership. Gender
stereotypes describe stereotypic beliefs about the attributes of women and men,
and prescribe how men and women “should” behave. Gender stereotypes of women
& men have contributed to the perception by some that women may be less
effective than men in leadership. In actuality, both are equally effective
(Eklund, 2017).
Generalizations about men versus
women as effective leaders based on sex or gender reveal an emphasis on the
Character domain of leadership. General assumption - traditional managerial
effectiveness is often is sex‐typed as masculine. This means that
characteristics deemed necessary to be a successful manager or an effective
leader have often been stereotypically associated with men. The more agentically
a leader role is defined (e.g., military officer, political leader, or
scientist) or the more completely women fulfill its agentic requirements, the
more likely such women are to elicit unfavorable evaluation because their
behavior deviates from the social norm of the female gender role. Vice versa,
for men. Males are commonly associated with agentic style, while females are
commonly associated with communal style. Both styles can be effective,
depending on the followers and the situation (Eklund, 2017).
The second C is Competence.
“Competence” is concerned with abilities, skills, and knowledge relevant to
leadership that are specific to & transcend various roles, professions, and
responsibilities, that are relevant to a position of leadership. Leaders need
to have both practical and working knowledge specific to their role as well as
transcendent leadership competencies. Aspects of “Competence” include
management skills, critical thinking, decision making, problem solving,
emotional intelligence (EQ), public relation skills, ability to influence
others. Leadership goes way beyond management & organizational skills.
Emotional intelligence plays a huge role in building rapport with colleagues
and employees. A leader is not chosen solely based on his/her intelligence (IQ)
or education level, though it does comprise a big part in evaluating
leadership. Emotional intelligence (EQ) is equally important.
Some research indicate women have
higher levels of EQ compared to men. While other researches indicated that both
male & female have no differences in EQ. Both EQ and IQ are vital to a
leader in helping him/her manage their organization. Gender does not bear much
influence on Competence. However, cultural and societal biases often color
interpretation of competencies based on sex and gender. Because
gender biases may affect perception of Competence in self and others, it is
important to be aware of any gender related biases that contribute to
misperceptions about Competence and to, instead, focus on each Competence per
se.
“Context” is the third C according
the framework by Callahan and Grunberg (2016), as cited by Eklund (2017). Physical,
psychological, social, & economic environments, as well as various
situations. Several categories: Unique characteristics of subordinates, Nature
tasks/work undertaken, & Organizational climate/culture/structure of
environment, etc. Effective leaders are aware of & adjust to context in a
variety of ways. Gender and context, focuses on psychological and social
context. Various perspectives & classification of context. Intrapsychic
perspective - Gender‐role characteristics affect the leader's preferred style,
behavior, & outcomes. Regardless whether leader is male or female. Social
structural perspective -Qualitative differences in men's & women's
normative roles affect leadership behavior and outcomes. Interpersonal
perspective - How leaders interact with superiors, coworkers, and subordinates.
Unique characteristics of subordinates – personal attributes, skills/expertise,
values/principles, etc. Nature tasks/work undertaken – type of work, structure, skills needed for
the work, duration, budget, etc. Organizational climate/ culture/ structure of
environment – administrative structure, human resources, distribution of work,
salary/wages, economy, etc. One of the largest moderators is the sex
composition of the organization. Differences between male and female leaders in
democratic and autocratic styles are significantly reduced in male‐dominated
groups than in female‐dominated groups. This finding suggests that female and
male leaders use styles more congruent with the gender‐typing of the context. Gender
is often a key aspect of Context, including, psychological context, social
context, and situational stress. Context and Gender operate at all PITO levels
of interaction. Cultural differences in Gender roles and biases as well as
psychobiological differences in relative extent to which each of the three
stress responses operate are likely to contribute to interactions among Context
and Gender with regard to leadership. Self‐awareness of these processes may
help to optimize leadership effectiveness.
The fourth is “Communication”.
Effective leadership depends on effective conveyance of information, listening,
respecting opinion, & willingness to be involved with others. Good
communication skills help leaders to make informed decisions relevant to the
group/organization, and also help to create positive & supportive
communication environments. Individuals employ different communication styles.
Feminine communication is described as more indirect, elaborate, and emotional.
masculine communication has been described as more direct, succinct, and
instrumental. Women who use a “feminine” communication style may be considered
less competent than men in leadership roles. Also applicable to men,
conversely. Women who use more “masculine” communication styles, may be
perceived as pushy or arrogant, depending on context. Applicable to men also,
conversely. Linguists and communication experts have not reached agreement about
whether there are truly differences in communication based on sex or gender.
Context plays an important role in the Gender by Communication interaction. The
level of interaction affects whether Communications are differentially
interpreted based on Gender.
4.
Leadership
Values & Characteristics – Feminine or Masculine? Which is better?
Radu et al (2017) concluded from
their research that modern/contemporary working environments require a mixture
of both feminine and masculine leadership values for members in the working
place to work in an effective synergetic manner. There are feminine values that
are good for leadership and also masculine values that are equally effective
and important in leadership[4]. Some
of the feminine values that are attributed generally to females include:
intuitive nature, careful and meticulous nature of females, ability to strike a
balance in work-personal environment, social responsibility. Masculine
characteristics on the other hand include: energetic and enthusiastic approach
to work, strong in both physical and attitude, ability to separate professional
and personal aspects, assertive and aggressive approach to tasks, etc. Most
contemporary research and studies have shown a deviation from traditional views
on leadership values which mostly lean towards the masculine side, and instead
show that there should be a balance to both masculine and feminine leadership
values which must be applied on a contextual basis.
The working environment has greatly
changed throughout time. Cultural and societal views on gender roles have also
changed. Emphasis nowadays are placed more on capabilities and values, without
any sense of biasness on gender. Gender biases, gender stereotypes and gender
inequality still exists, that is undeniable. But modern society have shown
tendency towards evaluation based on values and capabilities, rather than
choosing leaders based on genders. Traditional concepts or definition of
leadership which emphasized on more masculine qualities and attributes are
becoming less relevant to the modern working environment, and society are
leaning towards at a leadership style known as “the transformational
leadership” (Radu, et al, 2017). Many qualities valued under the
transformational leadership style is interestingly more attributed to females.
Radu et al (2017) found that modern leadership qualities described by members
of society and also through the media are mostly associated with the feminine
gender and are considered by modern society as most effective for the working
environment nowadays. This perception is greatly influenced by the changes
taking place in our modern society which places importance on gender equality,
and also the evolving cultural perceptions and gender stereotypes.
Radu et al (2017) found that there
are both pros and cons of both male and female gender characteristics when
shaped into a particular style of leadership. In today’s society, members of
society value interpersonal relationships and cooperation, and place emphasis
on work safety. Kouzes & Posner (2012) listed out 10 values or indicators
under the “Checklist of Admired Leaders”. The indicators are: Ambitious;
Caring; Competent; Determined: Forward-looking; Honest; Imaginative; Inspiring;
Loyal; and Self-controlled. These indicators are described to be valued by
modern companies and organizations which are more adaptable and dynamic,
compared to traditional definitions companies and organizations. Indicators
such as Caring; Honest: Imaginative and Loyal are described as feminine, while
indicators such as Competent and Forward-looking are associated with male
leadership style. Other indicators such as Determined; Inspiring and
Self-controlled on the hand are described as gender neutral. Radu et al (2017)
found that perceptions on leadership values and qualities amongst the Baby
Boomer generation, Gen X and Gen Y varied, but over time each generation showed
a change in their perception towards leadership which leaned more towards
feminine qualities and values. Radu et al (2017) noted that, as mentioned
previously, the definition and profile of leadership nowadays has changed from
the traditional perception which was more masculine, contributed by changing
societal and cultural views and perceptions.
Radu et al (2017) found that based on
the Human Synergistics Circumplex by the Human Synergistics International in
Life Style Inventory[5]
there are three clusters of leadership: Constructive; Aggressive/Power; and
Passive/Defensive. Under these three clusters, 12 different styles of
leadership styles are grouped and categorized. The description of the three are
as follows:
·
Constructive leadership
styles: promotes cooperation, teamwork to increase work productivity and
efficacy, while also valuing individual qualities.
·
Aggressive/Defensive
leadership styles: focuses on individual needs and qualities at the expense of
the group/organization.
·
Passive/Defensive
leadership styles: shows a tendency of people to subordinate themselves to the
organization, leading to suppression of creativity and flexibility in the
group/organization.
While under these three clusters, the 12 leadership
styles are categorized as follows:
·
Constructive
styles—Achievement, Self-Actualizing, Humanistic-Encouraging and Affiliative
·
Passive/Defensive
styles—Approval, Conventional, Dependent and Avoidance
·
Aggressive/Defensive
styles—Oppositional, Power, Competitive, and Perfectionistic
Constructive leadership styles are regarded as the
most optimum and effective leadership style. The 12 types of styles are split
between masculine and feminine and none specific style is described in
generalized terms, but is evaluated on a contextual basis. For example, women
are considered to be more Humanistic-Encouraging and Affiliative, whereas men are
typically better at Achievement and Self-Actualizing (Radu et al, 2017). Despite
then tendency of a certain gender leaning towards one type of leadership style,
it is no indication that one gender makes a better leader than the other, or
that one specific leadership style is more effective than the others.
Leadership qualities should always be evaluated and applied contextually, and
cannot be considers as a “one size fits all”.
5.
Conclusion
Despite the countless studies and
research carried out to analyze and determine the best leadership style and
which gender makes the best leader, there are no conclusive and definite finding
on this subject matter. All that can be said is that is it values, personality,
characteristics, and skills that make up a leader and determine the environment
and productivity of a workplace. The best leader is neither male or female. If
the person is equipped with the required attributes and skills necessary for a
leader, he or she will be able to carry out the responsibilities of leadership
to their best. Leadership is not about status or power, but it is about actions
and values. Despite the still existing gender bias and gender stereotypes that
still exists today, we cannot allow them to be hindrances to good and effective
leadership. Leaders should be chosen based on their capabilities, and not
because one is male or female. Gender might be a contributing factor, but it
should not be a determining factor for leadership.
References
·
Appelbaum.S, Audet.L,
Miller.J (20013), “Gender and leadership? Leadership and gender? A journey
through the landscape of theories”, Leadership & Organization Development
Journal 24/1, pg. 43-51
·
Eklund.K, Barry.S,
Grunberg.N (2017), “Chapter 8: Gender
and Leadership”, Gender Differences in
Different Contexts, Intech Open.
·
Radu.C, Deaconu.A,
Frăsineanu.C (2017), “Chapter 4: Leadership and Gender Differences—Are Men and
Women Leading in the Same Way?”, Gender
Differences in Different Contexts, Intech Open.
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